Sunday, January 26, 2020

Organizational Culture In Strategic Management

Organizational Culture In Strategic Management Culture plays an important part in our society. It refers to beliefs and codes of practice that makes a community what it is. It also plays the same role in organizations. A strong organizational culture will provide stability to an organization as it has significant influence on the attitudes and behaviours of organizations members. Most of companys top managers have a strong awareness that the culture of a company is crucial to everything they do and plays irreplaceable part in their success. However, not many companies can admit that they can describe their culture and fully understand how important it is in the success of their businesses. Therefore, this paper will give a deeper insight about how an organizations culture can have a great influence on its strategic management processes. What is Organization Culture ? There are various explanations and elements to define organizational culture. For some, it means top management beliefs and values about how they should manage the organization and conduct the business (Lorsch 1986). For some, it is an evolutionary process relating to people that creates unique characters for the organization (Hatch 1993). However, in general, organizational culture has been defined as the pattern of fundamental assumptions or beliefs that a specific group has developed through learning to deal with its problems of internal assimilation and external adaptation, and that have been approved to work effectively, and therefore it can be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, feel and behave in relation to those problems (Schein 2009). The Importance of Organizational Culture in Strategic Management : Considering the importance of organizational culture and its impacts in strategic management is very essential. As organizational culture and strategies are both social processes, many strategists argue that culture and strategies are connected. According to Alvesson (2002), cultural dimension plays a vital role in all aspects of an organization. It is so impacting that it can determine the success and failure of an organization. In leadership concept, organizational culture has been identified as one the important components that strategic leaders can use to develop dynamic organization. Culture reflects the way in which people in an organization set objectives, manage their resources and perform their tasks. Culture also affects people behaviour unconsciously. Even in those organizations where the ideal of organizational culture do not receive much explicit attention, how people think, feel, value, believe and behave in a company are generally influenced by ideas, beliefs and perce ption of a cultural nature. According to Schein (2010), organizational leaders achieve success by constantly sending clear signals about their priorities, beliefs and values. Once culture is established and accepted, they become a strong management tool for leaders to communicate and energize their members with beliefs and values to do their jobs in a strategy supportive manner. When leaders succeed in promotion ethical culture in the organization, they will also become successful in organizational growth and consequently are competitive to their rivals. Therefore, it is very important to develop a strong culture in the organization as well as strategies that are suitable to the culture in order to be strengthened by it. If a particular strategy does not match with the organization culture, it could be almost impossible to accomplish expected outcome from the planned strategy. Organizational Culture, Vision and Mission in Strategic Management : One of the perspective to look at how organizational culture supports strategic management is through its influence on organizations missions and visions. Missions and visions play an important part in companys strategic management. According to Harrison and John (2010), a written mission statement is one of the most common way that managements use to communicate with their staffs about strategic direction. Generally, missions and visions state the companys purpose and values which provides ideals and direction for the company as it interacts with the marketplace. This will not only give a sense of purpose to internal and external stakeholders but also help them in resource allocation decisions which is very for carrying out companys strategy management. However, in order to have an effective missions and visions, managements need to connect them to organizational culture. In fact, one of the way to see an organizations culture through its reflection in core values (Schein 2010). Acc ording to Tocquigny and Butcher (2012), core values are the set of belief or ideology by which an organization operates. They are the foundation of organizational culture. In this fast paced era when everything is changing, core values are still constant. The organization may develop new strategies, policies or even significantly restructure; however, the fundamental identity of the company still remains intact. These values are the essential, foundational principles that will guide the organizations vision, mission and strategies as well as define and differentiating the organization from its competitors (Senske 2003). They create a foundation of attitudes and practices that every members have to agree to follow in order to support the vision and long term success of the organization. They also provide reference points and goals which allows organization to shape and strengthen its business. As internalized perception and beliefs can motivate staffs performance to exceptional level s, an effective strategic leaders need to understand and develop their intended implemented strategies that are suitable to organizational culture in order to pursue the vision of organizations leaders. Until organization decides what those cultural values are, and how they will interact with each other, ità ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s very difficult to do anything else, whether setting goals, establishing measurements, solving problems or even making decision effectively. One example about how organizational culture can support companys vision and mission is Facebook. Facebook is described as a cutting edge technology that constantly taking on new challenges in the worlds of milliseconds and terabyte. Their vision for the company is to create a fast changing and innovative company. They do not aim for perfection that requires a long time in order to launch the product but they weigh heavily on being able to make and ship products quickly, get customers feedback and continue to innovate it. In order to encourage creativity and innovation within the company, Facebooks culture created by Zuckerberg is a relaxed, unstructured and open culture. Employees can come and go as they please, with no standard work schedules which results in more employee freedom. If employees need to chill out, they can play video or table-top games. Collaboration and teamwork are encouraged to be in an informal communication and atmosphere. They also constantly encourage people to keeping things fresh, innovative and interesting, to be bold in experimenting new ideas, without any meddling from above. All of these have fostered for a fun-loving, casual and creative working environment which makes their staffs satisfied while achieving their goal to be a rapid innovative technology company (Robbins and Judge 2011). Organizational Culture as Competitive Advantage in Strategic Management : Another reason that makes culture become a determinant of business success or failure is due to its contribution in organizations competitive advantage. Creating and sustaining competitive advantage in a particular industry is always the major concern in organizations strategic management. This is because competitive advantage will help the organization to differentiate itself from its competitors while strengthening its position in the market place. According to McDonald and Gandz (1992), culture can contribute positively to the competitive advantage of companies. It can be a great tool for organization to increase their level of performance which makes it become more competitive in market place. Fernandez and Hogan (2003) have stated that culture is the underlying attitudes and beliefs that can strongly influence individual and group behaviour. When members in an organization share the same beliefs and values, they can understand what kind of attitudes they expect themselves and ot her people to show in working place as well as how they need to behave and react in particular situation in order cooperate well with each other. As they understand what the company is trying to accomplish, it will motivate them to work for a higher purpose which in turn helps to set an organization apart from the competition (Gilmartin 1999). Managements can also use organizational culture as an effective tool to dictate, control and manage employee behaviours in their strategic management (Sinha 2008). In fact, this is a more powerful way of managing employee than companys rules and regulations. Leaders in the company can use culture to influence, educate and shape their staff s mindset and attitude to gain their support in following the companys plan and procedure while reducing resistance in the organization. Having a strong, positive and strategy-supportive culture will affect the energy, enthusiasm, working habits and operating practices of employees which will not only booste r the efficiency and effectiveness in the department but also attract many people to work in the organization while reducing their staff turnover, hiring and training cost which results in yielding a competitive advantage. Not only contribute to companys competitive advantage , organizational culture also sustains the companys competitive advantage. As a company starts to experience the superior financial performance, its competitors will also starts to seek to copy what they believe is the source of competitive advantage that generates the success of the company. After examining the relationship between culture and superior financial performance, Barney (1986) concluded that culture is the factor that can help companies to generate sustained competitive advantage. He strongly believes that a strong and valuable organizational culture is one of the most sustainable competitive advantages a company can have. This is because a valuable and rare cultures is very difficult to imitate. Giving enough time and money, competitors can duplicate almost everything what an has done. They can hire away some of the companys best people. They can reverse engineer the companys processes. However, when it comes to orga nizational culture, they canà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢t duplicate the organizations culture. It is very hard for people to define culture clearly, especially in respect of its contribution to value of companys product and service. Another reason for this is that culture is usually related to historical aspects of company development as well as to the vision, beliefs and inspiration from particular strategic leaders. Organizational culture is the uniqueness and the identity of an organization that will differentiate the company from its competitors. If companies know how to make use of culture in their strategic management, it will be a powerful tool for them to sustain their competitiveness and consistence in the market while helping them to achieve success in their strategy implementation. Even when rivals try to apply the firms cultural attributes, there will be no guarantee that they can produce the same culture or obtain superior financial performance just like what the company has achieved. A good example to illustrate this point is Zappos company. Knowing that customers nowadays not only focus on good products but they also demand excellent service from the outlets, Zapposs strategic plan is to build a long term brand that not just about shoes, clothing or online retailing but to be about the best customer service and the best customer experience. To be able to achieve this goal, Zappos believes that organizational culture is the only answer. They believe that if they can get the culture right, most of other stuffs such as great customer service, or passionate employees, or building great long term brand will naturally happen on its own. In order to make employees to deliver an excellent service, instead of just using rules and procedures like other companies to educate staffs, the managements in here have shaped their staffs mindset and attitude by using culture to transmit their message to their staffs. Zappos have created a culture that encourages employees to wow e ach other by being yourself, as crazy or weird as possible, showing your care and love for other people, and just having fun in the workplace. As the employees start to be wowed by their colleagues, they will automatically want to do the same thing for other people, especially for their customers. This culture not only makes employees to be happy in their workplace but it also encourages staffs to be creative and enthusiastic in wowing their customers which results in increase in their repeated customers and their sale performance. This culture is something unique that people usually do not find in other companies which makes it attractive to their staffs as well as to other people to work in Zappos. It becomes a competitive advantage of Zappos which cannot be copied by other competitors. It makes Zappos become more competitive and differentiate themselves from their rivals in the market place (Hsieh 2010). Organizational Culture and Strategic Decision Making : Another perspective for managements to consider about the importance of their organizational culture in strategic management is its impact on their strategic decision making. As it has been mentioned above, culture is the organization s identity, values, beliefs that influences how people, from managements to employees, behave in the organization. Therefore, Thompson and Martin (2005) have concluded that organizational culture is the heart of all strategy creation and implementation. Organizational culture provides the framework for the organization, which affects nearly all the organizational activities, from the execution of strategy to the acceptance and implementation of new processes (Soyer, kabak and Asan 2007; Hill 2009; Cumming and Worley 2009). For managements, culture affects their behaviour unconsciously. It affects the choice, incidence and application of the modes of strategy creation, which reflects the values and preferences of the strategic leader. Managements do thin g in particular ways because it is implicitly expected behaviour influenced by organizational culture. Culture also influences the selection of people for particular jobs, which results in affecting the way in which tasks are carried out and decisions are made. In addition, it influences the ability of a leader to deliver his or her ideal and vision to other members of the organization as well as gaining their support and commitment when it comes to applying new strategy in the organization. In order to have a successful strategy implementation, it requires the right attitude, approach and commitment from employees which can only be influenced by culture. When a strategy match with companys culture, the culture will become a valuable ally in strategy implementation and execution. When it is not a part of the change strategy, management will usually find it difficult to implement the strategy successfully as well as achieving their target (Lawson and Ventriss 1992). Berry (1983) also believes that it may be a wiser choice for managements to select a business or strategy that will fit their companys organizational culture well in order to shift the firm toward a new strategy instead of accomplishing cultural change, which can be very difficult to achieve. Therefore, it is very important to identify the existing cultural dimensions of the organization in order to achieve successful strategy implementation. Organizational culture can be a powerful source to support companys strategy but at the same time, it can also become a great barrier to leaders if they do not consider it carefully. By understanding the elements of organizational culture and its impact on peoples behaviour, I believes that strategic leaders will be better equipped to make wise decision in making and implementing strategies to their organization. One example about how culture influences strategic decision is Walmart. In Walmart, their philosophy is to offer customers a lower price than they can get in anywhere else. Its culture is based on low cost end of every transaction in order to make profit, not from the pricing end. With the principle of saving is important as pricing, the plan has always been to drive costs out of the system in the stores, from the manufacturers profit margins, and from merchandise brokers and other middlemen, all in the service of driving down prices at the retail level, in order for Walmart to sell more, increasing the amount of business with the vendor. In order to keep their expense low, Walmart limits its store locations to rural communities with a maximum population of 10,000. This will not only hold down real estate costs but also protect the company from heavy competition in metropolitan areas. They also try to find healthy suppliers that can provide timely deliveries at low prices. Management s in here also constantly check their competitors price to make sure that Walmart offer the best drive. All of these strategic decisions support the main principle and target which is saving costs as much as possible in order to offer lowest prices in the market (Refrigerated Transporter 2002). Conclusion : In conclusion, I firmly believe that there is a strong connection between organizational culture and strategic management. Every organization has its own unique culture. It is not only the organizations identity but also the philosophy, principles that every member in organization believe and value, which affects not only peoples attitude in the organization but also the strategic decision making and management in the company. If vision and mission of organizations leaders is the goal that the company is aiming, then I believe that culture will be the compass that leads company to achieve that goal. Without the support from organizational culture, it may be impossible for companies to achieve their intended result. Culture also plays an important role in companys competitive advantage. It is a vital element that will helps organization to protect and sustain their competitive advantage from their competitors. As organization keeps building, treasuring their culture as well as careful ly considering and applying it to their strategic management, I believe that the company will be able to accomplish their goal and their leaders vision.

Saturday, January 18, 2020

Tom Ang

Tom Ang grew up playing the clarinet. His dream was to become the first clarinet for the London schools symphony orchestra. he never made his dream in the musical world so he turned to the world of Medicine. he stayed in the Nottingham medical school for 3 years before he decided that this wasn't his passion either. he traveled to Hong Kong many years later and saw the beauty that he has never seen before. he then decided that this was his passion. to photograph the things people pass by everyday and to have a new world seen from right under our noses.He traveled to mexico to see not the poverty that is riddled throughout the land but to see the happiness that the families share even in the dark times. to show that it doesn't matter how much money you have to care for your family but how much heart. In his trip to mexico he realized that people don't want to always see the darker things in life that may seem interesting. he saw past the mirror that makes other people resilient and ch ooses to take pictures of the obvious things that others won't see.Tom decided that these pictures are the ones that show true heart and are willing to break the boundaries of normal lifestyle and show the cultures of many other races and nations. he also visits New York in that same year and tries to show New York from the outside worlds perspective. this meaning the poverty that surrounds New York so that it seems similar to mexico and the other countries. he soon realizes that these people are not like the ones in his other photographs that these people are dangerous and are not fueled by heart and love but they are fueled by hate and greed.He tries to capture these pictures as best as he can but did not post many because he believed that they didn't show the true feeling he felt when taking the photos and it doesn't have the same effect if it doesn't feel the same. At this point in time Tom started working with Fay Godwin as his assistant. he was asked if he knew how to print be cause that would be his basic job, and of course he responded yes. He claims that he was a total amateur and did not want to admit it because he needed the job. Yet for some reason she kept him on the team and trained him to become a better printer so he can print for her book and galleries.Tom traveled back to Hong Kong and took many more homescape photos while on his vacation there. Tom had upset a large nest of bees when photographing there. they attacked him very vigorously and sent him to the operating table. he says that his life could have ended right there. after his battle with the bees he traveled to japan in search of a dream boat that kept appearing every time that he would dream. he searched through all of japan taking pictures of boats so he could find it. but sadly this boat was never found.

Thursday, January 9, 2020

The Honest to Goodness Truth on Excel Essay Samples How Do I Feel about It)

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Wednesday, January 1, 2020

Jose Miguel Carrera - Biography of Jose Miguel Carrera

Josà © Miguel Carrera Verdugo (1785-1821) was a Chilean general and dictator who fought for the patriot side in Chiles War for Independence from Spain (1810-1826). Together with his two brothers, Luà ­s and Juan Josà ©, Josà © Miguel fought the Spanish up and down Chile for years and served as head of government when breaks in the chaos and fighting allowed. He was a charismatic leader but a shortsighted administrator and a military leader of average skills. He was often at odds with Chiles liberator, Bernardo OHiggins. He was executed in 1821 for conspiring against OHiggins and Argentine liberator Josà © de San Martà ­n. Early Life Josà © Miguel Carrera was born on October 15, 1785 into one of the wealthiest and most influential families in all of Chile: they could trace their lineage all the way to the conquest. He and his brothers Juan Josà © and Luà ­s (and sister Javiera) had the best education available in Chile. After his schooling, he was sent to Spain, where he soon became swept up in the chaos of Napoleons 1808 invasion. Fighting against the Napoleonic forces, he was promoted to Sergeant Major. When he heard that Chile had proclaimed a provisional independence he returned to his homeland. Josà © Miguel Takes Control In 1811, Josà © Miguel returned to Chile to find it ruled by a junta of leading citizens (including his father Ignacio) who were nominally loyal to the still-imprisoned King Ferdinand VII of Spain. The junta was taking baby steps towards real independence, but not quickly enough for the hot-tempered Josà © Miguel. With the support of the powerful Larrain family, Josà © Miguel and his brothers staged a coup on November 15, 1811. When the Larrains tried to sideline the Carrera brothers afterwards, Josà © Manuel initiated a second coup in December, setting himself up as dictator. A Nation Divided Although the people of Santiago grudgingly accepted the dictatorship of Carrera, the people of the southern city of Concepcià ³n did not, preferring the more benign rule of Juan Martà ­nez de Rozas. Neither city recognized the authority of the other and civil war seemed certain to break out. Carrera, with the unwitting aid of Bernardo OHiggins, was able to stall until his army was too strong to resist: in March of 1812, Carrera attacked and captured the city of Valdivia, which had supported Rozas. After this show of force, the leaders of the Concepcià ³n military overthrew the ruling junta and pledged support to Carrera. The Spanish Counterattack While rebel forces and leaders had been divided among themselves, Spain was preparing a counterattack. The Viceroy of Peru sent Marine Brigadier Antonio Pareja to Chile with only 50 men and 50,000 pesos and told him to do away with the rebels: by March, Parejas army had swollen to some 2,000 men and he was able to capture Concepcià ³n. Rebel leaders formerly at odds with Carrera, such as OHiggins, united to fight off the common threat. The Siege of Chillà ¡n Carrera cleverly cut off Pareja from his supply lines and trapped him in the city of Chillà ¡n in July of 1813. The city is well-fortified, and Spanish commander Juan Francisco Sà ¡nchez (who replaced Pareja after his death in May 1813) had some 4,000 troops there. Carrera laid an ill-advised siege during the harsh Chilean winter: desertions and death were high among his troops. OHiggins distinguished himself during the siege, driving back an attempt by the royalists to break through patriot lines. When the patriots managed to capture a part of the city, the soldiers looted and raped, driving more Chileans to support the royalists. Carrera had to break off the siege, his army in tatters and decimated. The Surprise of El Roble On October 17, 1813, Carrera was making plans for a second assault on the city of Chillà ¡n when a sneak attack by Spanish troops caught him unawares. As the rebels slept, royalists crept in, knifing the sentries. One dying sentry, Miguel Bravo, fired his rifle, alerting the patriots to the threat. As the two sides joined in battle, Carrera, thinking all was lost, drove his horse into the river to save himself. OHiggins, meanwhile, rallied the men and drove off the Spanish despite a bullet wound in his leg. Not only had a disaster been averted, but OHiggins had turned a probable rout into a well-needed victory. Replaced by OHiggins While Carrera has disgraced himself with the disastrous siege of Chillà ¡n and cowardice at El Roble, OHiggins had shone at both engagements. The ruling junta in Santiago replaced Carrera with OHiggins as commander-in-chief of the army. The modest OHiggins scored further points by supporting Carrera, but the junta was adamant. Carrera was named ambassador to Argentina. He may or may not have intended to go there: he and his brother Luà ­s were captured by a Spanish patrol on March 4, 1814. When a temporary truce was signed later that month, the Carrera brothers were freed: the royalists cleverly told them that OHiggins intended to capture and execute them. Carrera did not trust OHiggins and refused to join him in his defense of Santiago from advancing royalist forces. Civil War On June 23, 1814, Carrera led a coup that put him back in command of Chile. Some members of the government fled to the city of Talca, where they begged OHiggins to restore the constitutional government. OHiggins obliged, and met Luà ­s Carrera on the field at the Battle of Tres Acequias on August 24, 1814. OHiggins was defeated and driven off. It appeared that more warring was imminent, but the rebels once again had to face a common enemy: thousands of new royalist troops sent from Peru under the command of Brigadier General Mariano Osorio. Because of his loss at the battle of Tres Acequias, OHiggins agreed to a position subordinate to that of Josà © Miguel Carrera when their armies were united. Exiled After OHiggins failed to stop the Spanish at the city of Rancagua (in large part because Carrera called off reinforcements), the decision was made by patriot leaders to abandon Santiago and head into exile in Argentina. OHiggins and Carrera met again there: prestigious Argentine General Josà © de San Martà ­n supported OHiggins over Carrera. When Luà ­s Carrera killed OHiggins mentor Juan Mackenna in a duel, OHiggins turned forever on the Carrera clan, his patience with them exhausted. Carrera went to the USA to seek ships and mercenaries. Return to Argentina In early 1817, OHiggins was working with San Martà ­n to secure the liberation of Chile. Carrera returned with a warship that he had managed to acquire in the USA, along with some volunteers. When he heard of the plan to liberate Chile, he asked to be included, but OHiggins refused. Javiera Carrera, Josà © Miguels sister, came up with a plot to liberate Chile and get rid of OHiggins: brothers Juan Josà © and Luà ­s would sneak back into Chile in disguise, infiltrate the liberating army, arrest OHiggins and San Martà ­n, and then lead the liberation of Chile themselves. Josà © Manuel did not approve the plan, which ended in disaster when his brothers were arrested and sent to Mendoza, where they were executed on April 8, 1818. Carrera and the Chilean Legion Josà © Miguel went mad with rage at the execution of his brothers. Seeking to raise his own army of liberation, he collected some 600 Chilean refugees and formed the Chilean Legion and headed to Patagonia. There, the legion rampaged through Argentine towns, sacking and plundering them in the name of gathering resources and recruits for a return to Chile. At the time, there was no central authority in Argentina, and the nation was ruled by a number of warlords similar to Carrera. Imprisonment and Death Carrera was eventually defeated and captured by the Argentine Governor of Cuyo. He was sent in chains to Mendoza, the same city where his brothers had been executed. On September 4, 1821, he too was executed there. His final words were I die for the liberty of America. He was so despised by the Argentines that his body was quartered and put on show in iron cages. OHiggins personally sent a letter to the Governor of Cuyo, thanking him for putting down Carrera. Legacy of Josà © Miguel Carrera Josà © Miguel Carrera is considered by Chileans to be one of the founding fathers of their nation, a great revolutionary hero who helped Bernardo OHiggins win independence from Spain. His name is a bit besmirched due to his constant bickering with OHiggins, considered by Chileans to be the greatest leader of the independence era. This somewhat qualified reverence on the part of modern Chileans seems a fair judgment of his legacy. Carrera was a towering figure in Chilean independence military and politics from 1812 to 1814, and he did much to secure Chiles independence. This good must be weighed against his errors and shortcomings, which were considerable. On the positive side, Carrera stepped into an indecisive and fractured independence movement upon his return to Chile in late 1811. He took command, providing leadership when the young republic most needed it. The son of a wealthy family who had served in the Peninsular War, he commanded respect among the military and the wealthy Creole landowner class. The support of both of these elements of society was key to maintaining the revolution. During his limited reign as dictator, Chile adopted its first constitution, established its own media and founded a national university. The first Chilean flag was adopted during this time. Slaves were freed, and the aristocracy was abolished. Carrera made many mistakes as well. He and his brothers could be very treacherous, and they used devious schemes to help them remain in power: at the Battle of Rancagua, Carrera refused to send reinforcements to OHiggins (and his own brother Juan Josà ©, fighting alongside OHiggins) partly in order to make OHiggins lose and look incompetent. OHiggins later got word that the brothers planned to assassinate him if he had won the battle. Carrera was not nearly as skilled a general as he thought he was. His disastrous mismanagement of the Siege of Chillà ¡n led to the loss of a great portion of the rebel army when it was most needed, and his decision to recall the troops under the command of his brother Luà ­s from the battle of Rancagua led to a disaster of epic proportions. After the patriots fled to Argentina, his constant bickering with San Martà ­n, OHiggins and others failed to allow the creation of a unified, coherent liberation force: only when he went to the USA in search of aid was such a force allowed to form in his absence. Even today, Chileans cannot quite agree on his legacy. Many Chilean historians believe that Carrera deserves more credit for Chilean liberation than OHiggins and the topic is openly debated in certain circles. The Carrera family has remained prominent in Chile. General Carrera Lake is named after him. Sources: Concha Cruz, Alejandor and Maltà ©s Cortà ©s, Julio. Historia de Chile Santiago: Bibliogrà ¡fica Internacional, 2008. Harvey, Robert. Liberators: Latin Americas Struggle for Independence Woodstock: The Overlook Press, 2000. Lynch, John. The Spanish American Revolutions 1808-1826 New York: W. W. Norton Company, 1986. Scheina, Robert L. Latin Americas Wars, Volume 1: The Age of the Caudillo 1791-1899 Washington, D.C.: Brasseys Inc., 2003.